Ravenna Mosaics
Christian Decorative Art of the Roman-Byzantine
Era.
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Ravenna Mosaics
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Ravenna Mosaics & Architecture (c.400-600)
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The northern Italian city of Ravenna, situated on the Adriatic coast, south of Venice, is famous for both its late Roman architecture and its masterpieces of mosaic art, derived from its time as the capital of the Western Roman Empire (c.402-76), and later as an imperial Exarchate of the Byzantine Empire (c.540-750). Its most important monuments of early Christian art are: the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (c.380-450), built by Emperor Honorius; the Mausoleum of Theoderic (c.520) and the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (500-514), both built by Theodoric the Great (454-526); the Basilica of San Vitale (c.527-546), begun by Queen Amalasuntha (495-535), Theodoric's daughter; and the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe (c.535-549), built by the Greek banker Julianus Argentarius, who also financed the church of San Vitale. Although many of its surviving structures have been heavily restored, Ravenna remains the most important site of Byzantine art outside Constantinople, notably for its exquisite decorative art, including mosaics, relief sculpture, mural pictures, ceramic art, maiolica, ivory carving, marble inlays, goldsmithing, ornamented sarcophagi and much more. But Ravenna is most famous for its mosaics. During the 5th-century, the city became the centre of late Roman Christian art, and following its absorption into the Byzantine Empire in 540, it hosted a renaissance of Biblical Byzantine mosaics during the second half of the 6th century. This renaissance included the later mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. The mosaics of Emperor Justinian I and Empress Theodora in the Church of San Vitale, for instance, were created just after the Byzantine conquest. The mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe were executed about 549. The final series of Byzantine mosaic art in Ravenna was ordered by Bishop Reparatus in Sant'Apollinare in Classe during the 670s. Other important surviving mosaics include: Christ as the Good Shepherd (450) (Mausoleum of Galla Placidia); the Baptism of Christ (6th century) (Arian Baptistery); Christ Before Pontius Pilate (550) and the Transfiguration of Christ (550) (both in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Classe). |
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Ravenna's art and architecture has stemmed largely from the culture of its occupiers. First inhabited by Italic tribes migrating south from Aquileia, about 1400 BCE, the city was later occupied by the Etruscans (see: Etruscan art c.700-90 BCE), before being conquered by the Romans around 190 BCE for its excellent potential as a port and its all-round defensibility. (See: Roman art.) Indeed, from the era of Emperor Augustus, it became the headquarters for the Roman naval fleet in the Adriatic. Following the rise in Barbarian activity during the 4th century CE, the Western Roman Emperor Honorius (395-423) was forced to relocate his court from Rome to Ravenna in 402. The city remained the capital of the Western Roman Empire until its collapse in 476, when it became the capital of Odoacer, the first barbarian ruler of northern Italy. (See also: Late Roman art.) In 493, Odoacer was vanquished by the Ostrogothic leader Theodoric - acting for the Byzantine Emperor Zeno - who established Ravenna as the headquarters of the Ostrogothic kingdom. The Eastern Roman Emperors viewed the loss of Italy with some concern, from both a religious and political viewpoint. Although Theodoric was Christian, he belonged to the heretical sect of Arianism (that took a hierarchical view of the Holy Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Ghost), which was bitterly opposed by Ravenna's Catholic population. In the end, the Byzantine general Belisarius was sent to Italy by Emperor Justinian I (482-565), and in 540 captured Ravenna, which became the centre of Byzantine affairs in Italy, until it was seized by the Lombards in 750. For details of the subsequent Medieval European revival, see: Carolingian Art (750-900) and Ottonian Art (900-1050). Development of Ravenna's Art and Architecture The Western Roman Emperor Flavius Honorius (384-423), along with his half-sister Galla Placidia, established the earliest cultural monuments in Ravenna. These include the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia and the Neonian Baptistry, both of which reflected Western design and religious iconography. The Mausoleum of Theoderic and the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo were constructed by Theodoric the Great, some 60 years later, and the Basilica at least reflects the growing influence of the eastern Byzantine style on Roman interior decoration. The Basilica of San Vitale and the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe were mostly built before Ravenna was fully controlled by the Byzantine empire, although completion and dedication/consecration did not take place until afterwards. These two structures are the most Byzantine of Ravenna's major monuments. Initially a martyrium, rather than a tomb, this mausoleum was only later thought to have been used as the resting place for Galla Placidia and her family. (None are actually buried here.) Originally connected to the now-ruined narthex of Santa Croce, the church for the imperial palace, the mausoleum is a small, unornamented brick building, based on a Latin cross ground-plan, with a central dome and barrel vaults over the four transepts. Inside, the lower areas of the walls are decorated with plaques of yellow marble, while the entire upper surface and dome is adorned with Roman (not Byzantine) mosaics on a blue ground studded with floral and star motifs. Much of its decorative art is rich in symbolism. Light enters through tiny windows glazed with thin alabaster. A World Heritage site, the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia is the earliest and best preserved of all mosaic monuments in Ravenna. Also known as the Baptistry of the Orthodox, to distinguish it from Theodoric's later Arian Baptistry, it was built originally during the tenure of Bishop Ursus, and completed by Bishop Neon towards the end of the 5th century, when the mosaics were added. It is an octagonal tower-like domed building - its eight sides symbolize the seven days of the week plus an eighth which represents the Day of the Resurrection and Eternal Life - whose interior is extensively decorated with mosaics. Those in the dome show the Baptism of Christ by John the Baptist, while surrounding mosaics depict the twelve apostles in a fluid style derived from pagan Greek art. A UNESCO World Heritage site, the Neon Baptistry is regarded by archeologists and historians as the most complete surviving example of the early Christian baptistery. Of all the surviving buildings erected by the Arian Ostrogothic king Theodoric (d.526), the most impressive is his tomb. A two-story structure, it is roofed by a single 300-ton domed slab of Istrian limestone, some 36 feet (11 metres) in diameter, and its architect used the Roman stone building technique of "opus quadratum", which had been abandoned at the end of the 1st century CE. Set in the centre of the mausoleum's floor is a circular porphyry stone sarcophagus in which Theoderic is supposedly buried. A UNESCO World Heritage site since 1996, it is, according to scholars, the only preserved instance of a royal tomb from this period. Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo Designed and built by Theodoric as his Arian palace chapel as stated in the Liber Pontificalis, the Basilica was reconsecrated as a Catholic church in 561, as part of the suppression of all references to Theodoric's Arian faith, including the reworking of its mosaics. In 856 it was renamed yet again when the relics of Saint Apollinaris were transferred from the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe to safeguard them against marauding pirates. Despite considerable renovation and modernization, the Basilica contains a wealth of ancient mosaic art, illustrating the teachings, miracles, and Passion of Christ which are of major scholarly interest. Some historians, for instance, believe that one of the mosaics contains the first representation of Satan in the history of art. In the mosaic, a blue angel is depicted to the left of Jesus behind three goats (referred to by Saint Matthew in his account of Judgement Day). A UNESCO World Heritage site, the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo is one of the most important sites of European religious art from the early Medieval era, not least because of its mixture of motifs from both Eastern and Western Christianity - as shown by the bearded (Eastern Orthodox) and non-bearded (Roman) images of Christ. |
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A UNESCO World Heritage site, the Church of San Vitale is the major masterpiece of Byzantine art in Ravenna. Initiated by Bishop Ecclesius during the time of the Ostrogothic queen Amalasuntha, daughter of Theodoric, it was dedicated by Archbishop Maximianus in 547 during the reign of Justinian I. It is reputed to have cost its backer Julianus Argentarius a massive 26,000 gold pieces. It is one of the finest examples of early Christian Byzantine art and architecture in western Europe, and is the only major church from the Justinian era to survive almost intact to the present day. It is especially celebrated for its mosaic art, the most extensive and best preserved outside of Constantinople. The famous mosaics in the presbytery, for instance, reminiscent of similar decorations in the Byzantine capital, portray Old and New Testament figures, as well as 6th century Byzantine Emperors, Bishops and Archbishops. Based on an octagonal floor-plan, San Vitale's architectural design combines Roman features (dome, shape of doorways, stepped towers) with Byzantine elements from SS Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople, such as polygonal apse, complex carved capitals and narrow bricks. The dome however is not made from brick but a series of chains of closely fitted terracotta jars. Overall, the design is one used previously for martyria, a fact supported by the apse mosaic and by the church's dedication to San Vitale, reportedly martyred on the actual site of the church during the 2nd century. San Vitale's Mosaics: Presbytery and Apse These include Biblical art from the Old Testament, such as: Abraham and the Sacrifice of Isaac; the story of Moses and the Burning Bush, Jeremiah and Isaiah, the story of Abel and Cain, and others. On the side walls are mosaics of the Four Evangelists - Matthew, Mark, Luke and John - under their respective symbols (angel, lion, ox and eagle). The cross-ribbed vault over the presbytery is decorated with mosaic pictures of foliage, fruit and flowers, stars, birds and animals, as well as a crown, supported by four angels, encircling the Lamb of God. These mosaic decorations, all richly symbolic and all completed prior to Byzantine control, were influenced by Christian Roman art, using rich colours and realistic depictions of landscape and nature. Traces of Celtic-style Christian art are also visible. At the foot of the side walls of the apse, there are two well-known mosaic panels, executed in 547. One mosaic depicts the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I, clad in purple and wearing a golden halo, flanked by Archbishop Maximianus, various court officials and guards. The presence of priests on his left and soldiers on his right indicates his position as leader of both Church and State, while his halo gives him the same aspect as Christ in the dome of the apse. Another mosaic panel portrays a solemn Empress Theodora (as a kind of Goddess), complete with golden halo, crown and jewellery, accompanied by a number court ladies. Neither Justinian nor Theodora ever set foot in Ravenna, and their mosaics are executed in a very different style from those in the Presbytery: they are more Byzantine, more hieratic and altogether more eastern than the beardless Christ of the main apse. See also: Medieval Christian Art (c.600-1200). Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe Built at the same time as San Vitale, the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe was started in 535 by order of Bishop Ursicinus, and finally dedicated by Archbishop Maximianus in 549, to Saint Apollinaris, the first bishop of Ravenna and Classe. The outside of the church features a large facade with two uprights and a single mullioned window with three openings. The narthex is a later addition, as is the distinctive round bell-tower (870–878) that constitutes the earliest example in Italy of the decorative use of majolica. The Basilica has a nave and two aisles. In the middle of the nave stands an ancient altar, positioned directly above the confessio - the site of Saint Apollinare's martyrdom. The nave also features 24 columns of Greek marble topped by magnificent carved capitals. Several fresco paintings dating from the 18th century depict some of the archbishops of the city. At the end of the church is a polygonal apse, flanked by two chapels, with a beautiful mosaic illustrating the Transfiguration of Christ. Also illustrated are Elijah and Moses, as well as the four bishops who built the main basilicas in Ravenna: namely, Ursus, Severus, Ursicinus, and Ecclesius. Both the upper and lower areas of the triumphal arch of the Basilica are decorated with mosaics: the upper register features Christ surrounded by winged symbols of the four Evangelists: the Eagle of St John, the Angel of St Matthew, the Lion of St Mark, and the Calf/ox of St Luke. The lower register shows twelve lambs (symbols of Christ's Twelve Apostles), two palms symbolizing justice, and the archangels Michael and Gabriel. Much of the church's mosaic iconography is related to the struggle against the Catholic heresy of Arianism. • The Archbishop's Chapel (or Archiepiscopal
Chapel) • The Baptistry of the Arians
(493-526), built during the reign of Theodoric. Note: Ravenna's National Museum of Antiquities, adjoining the Church of San Vitale, owns an important collection of Early Christian antiquities, such as plaques, icons, ivories, ceramics, other sculpture, and sarcophagi. Surviving fragments of late Roman and Byzantine mosaics can be seen in some of the best art museums in the world. |
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• For a chronological guide to the
evolution of decorative crafts, see: History
of Art Timeline.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ART HISTORY |
